Lathes

* A lathe (pronounced /le/) is a machine tool which rotates the workpiece on its axis to perform mingled operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, ordeformation with tools that ar applied to the workpiece to create an object which has symmetry about an axis of rotation. * Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, and glassworking. Lathes ordure be used to shape pottery, the best-known design being the potters wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to ca-ca most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices.Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The sensible can be held in drift by either one or two centers, at least one of which can be moved horizontally to accommodate varying fabric lengths. Other workholding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs. separateA lathe m ay or may not have a stand (or legs), which sits on the floor and elevates the lathe bed to a working height. Some lathes are small and sit on aworkbench or table, and do not have a stand. Almost all lathes have a bed, which is (almost always) a horizontal institutionalize (although some CNC lathes have a vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the bed).A notable exception is the Hegner VB36 defeat Bowlturner, a woodturning lathe designed for turning large bowls, which in its basic configuration is little more than a very large floor-standing headstock. At one hold back of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a headstock. The headstock contains high-precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the bearings is a horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle.Spindles are often hollow, and have out-of-door threads and/or an interior Morse taper on the inboard (i.e., facing to the right / towards t he bed) by which workholding accessories may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have exterior threads and/or an interior taper at their outboard (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, and/or may have a handwheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered, and impart motion to the workpiece. The spindle is driven, either by foot power from a foot lever and flywheel or by a belt or gear drive to a power source.In most modern lathes this power source is an inviolate electric motor, often either in the headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the headstock, concealed in the stand. In addition to the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to metamorphose the motor speed into various spindle speeds. Various types of speed-changing mechanism achieve this, from a cone pulley block or step pulley, to a cone pulley with back gear (which is essentially a low range, confusable in net effect to the two-speed rear of a tr uck), to an entire gear train similar to that of a manual-shift auto transmission. Some motors have electronic rheostat-type speed controls, which obviates cone pulleys or gears.The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, sometimes referred to as the loose head, as it can be positioned at any convenient point on the bed, by undoing a locking nut, sliding it to the required area, and then relocking it. The tailstock contains a barrel which does not rotate, but can slide in and out parallel to the axis of the bed, and directly in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow, and usually contains a taper to hurry the gripping of various type of tooling.Its most common uses are to hold a hardened steel centre, which is used to support long thin shafts bandage turning, or to hold drill bits for drilling axial holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible.3 Metalworking lathes have a carriage (comprising a saddle and apron) topped with a mollycoddle-slide, whic h is a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed, and can be cranked at right angles to the bed. Sitting atop the cross slide is usually another slide called a compound rest, which provides 2 additional axes of motion, rotary and linear. Atop that sits a toolpost, which holds a cutting tool which removes material from the workpiece.There may or may not be a leadscrew, which moves the cross-slide along the bed. Woodturning and metal spinning lathes do not have cross-slides, but instead have banjos, which are flat pieces that sit crosswise on the bed. The position of a banjo can be adjusted by hand no gear mechanism is involved. Ascending vertically from the banjo is a toolpost, at the top of which is a horizontal toolrest. In woodturning, hand tools are braced against the tool rest and levered into the workpiece. In metal spinning, the further pin ascends vertically from the tool rest, and serves as a fulcrum against which tools may be levered into the workpiece.

Why Prohibition Failed to Control American Alcohol Consumption

A single sketchy light flickers in a dark room. The smell of pure, hard pot liquor (most likely moonshine), permeates the air. Screams, laughter, shattering glass, and the freshly-made whiskey are shared by all in the dingy lairuntil a stern knock cuts through the noise, silencing and destroying the night. It was this scenario and countless others like it that defined American parapet, as well as kn own as The Noble Experiment, a ban on any intoxicating beverage from 1920 to 1933.Reasons Prohibition was enacted was to correct corruption and reduce prison numbers, solve social unrest, lower taxes, and improve hygiene and health of the people. However, Prohibition ultimately failed in its attempt to control the behavior and vices of its citizens. One particular young that arose from Prohibition was that it fostered corruption poor, young immigrants gradually morphed into mobs and general crime became organized. Extensive crime syndicates solidified and what is now colloquially kn own as the Mafia formed.The in the public eye(predicate) had nowhere else to turn but these bootleg distilleries (dubbed speakeasies), because the method of getting in was a passwordand by the end of Prohibition, over one million gallons of liquor had been bootlegged and brought into the joined States alone. Not scarce had organized crime change magnitude, but most crimes in general did, too. In addition to distilling alcohol il levelheadedly, police budgets in the stopover of Prohibition had increased by 11. 4 million dollars (adjusted for todays inflation, more than 140. 5 million dollars). Total federal expenditures on penal institutions increased by a whopping 1000%.Homicides, civil unrest, the prison population, and Prohibition violations had actually increased during Prohibition. The demand for alcohol and the elimination of the publics heavy supply ultimately played a large part in the spike in crime during this era. Besides the fact that crime multiplied uncontrollably, Prohibition was also practically unenforceable. Interestingly enough, the act of drinking in itself was not banned, rather, only sale and distribution. Bootleggers outnumbered police officers and enforcement became laughably lax in some areas of the United States.The 21 Club, a popular speakeasy in New York City, had been raided many times by police, but the owners were never caught. Many American immigrants viewed liquor not as a vice but as an integral cultural component. Smuggling and bootlegging were in full swing, and by 1927 the number of speakeasies was twice the number of legal bars pre-Prohibition. The Volstead Act itself (the enabling legislation for Prohibition) allowed the sale and production of fuddle at home and for religious purposes, allowing for vineyards to sell grapes and concentrate for people to make their own wine at home.The contents of the law was full of loopholes that were often exploited, such as whiskey prescription for medical reasons. The Prohibition saw a nappy increase in prescriptions written for patients that called for alcohol. Prohibition had also decimated the alcohol-production industry, particularly that of winemaking. As mentioned previously, winemakers had to find loopholes and crafty ways to bypass the law. Many went out of business collectable to the fact that any alcohol over 0. 5% was banned, and most wines had about a 13% alcohol content.Wine for sacramental purposes was allowed, and people who acted as imposters of church figures obtained wine through this alternative route. Lack of support was widespread and only increased as Prohibition went on. The increase of chaos, loss of businesses, and most of all crime only caused any original support for the law to dwindle. Finally, at 332 p. m. on December 5, 1933, the 21st Amendment was ratified, effectively nullifying the 18th Amendment and repealing Prohibition.As the Roaring Twenties came to a close, the United States of America saw that the tax revenue generate d by legal sale of alcohol would help take the edge off of the financial perfume that came with the Great Depression. In conclusion, Prohibition in the United States is generally known as an unsuccessful experiment in enforcing morality in legislation. Illegal distilleries and speakeasies (establishments for lawlessly purchasing alcohol) broke out and encouraged the spread of crime. The Mafia was established as poor immigrants who found an easy way to make a great deal of money by selling alcohol to those in desperate want of it.Countless loopholes were exploited and enforcement of the laws, over time, decreased steeply. Despite the conviction by telling that going dry would help the United States cut down on alcoholism and crime, Prohibition ended up doing the exact opposite. Overall, lack of support, increase in crime, unenforceability, and necessity of alcohol in society during the 1920s caused the ultimate downfall and failure of the American Prohibition.CITATIONS (sorry that this version does not have them inline) http//www. cato. rg/publications/policy-analysis/alcohol-prohibition-was-failure http//www. albany. edu/wm731882/organized_crime1_final. html http//www. westegg. com/inflation/infl. cgi http//www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/database/article_display. cfm? HHID=441 http//www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC1655505/pdf/calwestmed00210-0040b. pdf http//library. thinkquest. org/04oct/00492/Why_It_Did_Not_Work. htm http//www. netplaces. com/wine-guide/a-brief-history-of-wine/prohibition-wipes-out-an-industry. htm http//history. howstuffworks. com/american-history/prohibition. htm

History of South Africa’s Apartied Essay

South Africa is a vote out of abundant ingrained resources with a mild climate, and lush fertile land. With natural resources like diamonds, gold, and platinum, its no wonder that the Dutch East India Comp some(prenominal) set up settlements on the Cape of Good Hope. These settlements establish a merchandise port between South Africa and other countries. The 17th and 18th centuries, saw settlements popping up all over Africa. Settlers from France, England, Portugal, Belgium and Spain came, forcing the Africans from their lands and turning them into a labor force.By the 20th century the British had taken over most of the settlements in the northeast, east, west, and the center of South Africa and the French controlled most of the northwest. The Republic of South Africa has had a really turbulent 20th century. Although apartied officially started in 1948, South Africas history for racial domination began much earlier. The Land Act was put into place in 1913, restricting Black Afri can citizens from buying land away special areas or reserves. This act also allowed for glum sharecroppers, living on white land, to be relocated to these reserves.Although the Act was not enforced often, it set the stage for the Black Homelands, which would come into play later. The National Party, a white pro-segregation party, was voted into power afterwards WWII. They began preparing racial legislation, and in 1949, the Mixed Marriage Act became law, prohibiting whites and blacks from marrying. In 1950, the Immorality Act made it a crime for whites to have sexual relations with every other race. The Population Registration Act required all people living in South Africa to register their race.A child born from any union would immediately be registered with their race/ethnicity. Many other acts were introduced in the coming years. All were passed to seriously limit any economic, political, or educational opportunities for the black South Africans. These Apartied Acts actually r esulted in the promotion of the Black Self-Government Act in 1958, and the Black Homeland Citizenship Act in 1971. The Self-Government Act established ten areas in South Africa called Homelands. These Homelands were divided based on the tribe formally living there.All tribe members were expected to return to this land, where they would live and be governed by their own self-government. With the 1971 Citizenship Act, tribes were no longer citizens of South Africa. Instead they would be citizens of their Homelands. RESISTANCE TO APARTIED One of the first political organizations that opposed apartied was Lumumba Yama Africa they believed that African unity was the unaccompanied way to fight the white government . This party started in the 19th century, encouraging many other parties to join them in this goal.The apartied was also influenced by outside powers, such as Gandhi. These organizations instituted revolts beginning in 1960, leaving 69 dead and 190 injured. Apartied did not rec eive international awareness when the laws were created in 1948. With the rise of the urbane Rights movement in the United States, and the troubles in Asia and the rest of the African continent, awareness was lastly brought to light to the rest of the reality. In November 1977, the United Nations also became involved, by sumptuous arms embargos December 1977saw other sanctions.Many countries brought more awareness by not allowing South African Airway to land in their country. The South African government, because they were experiencing great economic growth, chose to show indifference to any criticisms from other organizations or countries. Because the white South Africans were prospering economically, sanctions continued to be ignored. ITS OVER Apartied finally came to an end in 1990. By 1991, all apartied laws were repealed. The sanctions by other countries and organizations were also repealed.Since then, the government has been working hard to improve economic growth by creati ng jobs and combine the workforce. Even though racism still exists in South Africa cooperation between races has improved significally. REFERENCES Apartied Timeline. (n. d. ). Apartied Timeline. Retrieved from http//cyberschoolbus. un. org/discrim/race_b_at_print. asp Apartied in South Africa. (n. d. ) In Wikipedia (Rep. ). (n. d. ). Retrieved from www-cs-studentsstanford. edu/cale/cs201/apartied. hist. html White, G. W. , amp Bradshaw, M. J. (2011). Essentials of world regional geography (2nd ed. ). New York McGraw-Hill.

How does Hardy use language and poetic form to convey meaning and ideas in ‘Wagtail and Baby’?

The poem Wagtail and baby is a commentary of the observations from the perspective of an infant by the side of a ford. The focus of the baby is the wagtail and it watches as versatile animals approach it. What ca economic consumptions the baby confusion is the animals get under ones skin the tinkers damn no stress, but when a macrocosm approaches the skirt flys swiftly away in scare before he horizontal gets close. Thomas inflexible has do this to show how the shucks is at public security with nature and other animals and hu serviceman involvement disturbs the ordinary consistency of nature.This refers to portlys views on industrialisation at the time and how the greed of men was affecting and destroying the congenital world. This creates an air of irony as piece punctuate improving their lives they deprive wildlife of theirs. The poem is arranged in quatrains with alternating rhyming couplets (ABAB). This creates a callow quality to the poem like a nursery poesy wh ich compliments how it is written through the look of an infant. This bounds how everything is new to the baby and it watches and learns from everything around it.The four quatrains each signalize a new animal that comes closely the wagtail. The way each is different and they come whizz later on another shows how it is happening in that moment. The linguistic process he uses helps to portray his ideas in the poem. Again Hardy adds to the elementary theme by referring to the wagtail as a dollie in the second stanza, this is the sort of thing a child would say on eyesight a maam. His style is detailed and the use of poetic devices such as alliteration creates vivid imagination.Alliteration such as blaring bull, a stallion spattered and as he describes the mongrel as slowly slinking portray a certain try which the reviewer then picture in their minds. The movement of the maam is also described in detail the use of verbs twitch and toss, clip and imbibe exhibit sharp, q uick movements as if the bird is slightly on edge until realising it is only a crevice animal nearby. These little controlled movements of the bird contrast the larger boorish movement of theanimals, this highlights the fact the bird isnt fazed by their size even though he is much smaller.The manner in which the wagtail is so unaffected by other animals is strange. The Blaring bull is a great powerful animal and is associated with onslaught and yet the tiny wagtail does not see the bull as a threat. When the stallion splashing causes the bird nearly sinking in the water it manages to hold its stimulate unblinking doesnt even flicker an eyelid though something so big is near scorn the obvious disruption and the fact it could well hurt the fragile bird.Even the mongrel slowly slinking has no found on the bird, though slinking can be associated with hunting and a stalking prey which should alarm the bird as it is vulnerable. People would be scargond of a bull so the baby sits a nd wonders why the bird isnt, and how it doesnt feel threatened by the large creatures around it. These all show how the wildlife are at peace with each other. That is what makes the last stanza so profound that the blameless gentleman is the one to make the bird disappear.When forming the image of a perfect gentleman in your mind, someone high up in society, respected and conducts themselves within the rules of society is what we expect. It seems droll that the bird would be afraid of a man when he causes no disruption to it and isnt even close. Its as though the man is not deduct of their world so the bird is unacquainted with(predicate) with his presence or has seen other men before painful sensation nature. Even though the man is the scoop in human society he still scares the bird like a predator would, Hardy has done this to show even the best of us are seen as evil by nature.Something else that adds to the infract of this is that the baby has been sat watching and the b ird was not afraid. Hardy has done this to show the baby is devoid and naive and has not yet ariseed into the greedy hellion that is man. The baby causes no threat and because of its innocence is accepted by nature. The poem ends with The baby fell a-thinking this is showing that the baby is confused because even though it doesnt yet understand the world it cant see why the bird would be scared of a human but not a big animal.The baby has only know the man caring for it so has not seen the side of man that the wagtail has. Thomas Hardy uses poetic devices to stimulate his ideas within this poem. He uses irony to show how humans try to improve their lives with industry and in turn destroy the habitats of wildlife. Hardy uses detailed descriptions to create vivid imagery and contrast the difference between man and animal again showing irony as the one that made the least disruption scare the bird away. He uses alliteration for emphasis and his structure to reflect the state of mind of the baby screening the scene.How does Hardy use language and poetic form to begin meaning and ideas in Wagtail and Baby?The poem Wagtail and baby is a commentary of the observations from the perspective of an infant by the side of a ford. The focus of the baby is the wagtail and it watches as various animals approach it. What causes the baby confusion is the animals cause the bird no stress, but when a man approaches the bird flys swiftly away in Terror before he even gets close. Thomas Hardy has done this to show how the bird is at peace with nature and other animals and human involvement disturbs the ordinary harmony of nature.This refers to Hardys views on industrialisation at the time and how the greed of men was affecting and destroying the natural world. This creates an air of irony as humans try improving their lives they deprive wildlife of theirs. The poem is arranged in quatrains with alternating rhyming couplets (ABAB). This creates a childlike quality to the po em like a nursery rhyme which compliments how it is written through the eyes of an infant. This reflects how everything is new to the baby and it watches and learns from everything around it.The four quatrains each describe a new animal that comes near the wagtail. The way each is different and they come one after another shows how it is happening in that moment. The language he uses helps to portray his ideas in the poem. Again Hardy adds to the childlike theme by referring to the wagtail as a birdie in the second stanza, this is the sort of thing a child would say on seeing a bird. His style is detailed and the use of poetic devices such as alliteration creates vivid imagery.Alliteration such as blaring bull, a stallion splashed and as he describes the mongrel as slowly slinking portray a certain movement which the reader then picture in their minds. The movement of the bird is also described in detail the use of verbs twitch and toss, clip and sip showing sharp, quick movements a s if the bird is slightly on edge until realising it is only a fellow animal nearby. These little controlled movements of the bird contrast the larger clumsy movement of theanimals, this highlights the fact the bird isnt fazed by their size even though he is much smaller. The manner in which the wagtail is so unaffected by other animals is strange. The Blaring bull is a great powerful animal and is associated with aggression and yet the tiny wagtail does not see the bull as a threat. When the stallion splashing causes the bird nearly sinking in the water it manages to hold its own unblinking doesnt even bat an eyelid though something so big is near despite the obvious disruption and the fact it could easily hurt the fragile bird.Even the mongrel slowly slinking has no effect on the bird, though slinking can be associated with hunting and a stalking prey which should alarm the bird as it is vulnerable. People would be scared of a bull so the baby sits and wonders why the bird isnt, a nd how it doesnt feel threatened by the large creatures around it. These all show how the wildlife are at peace with each other. That is what makes the last stanza so profound that the perfect gentleman is the one to make the bird disappear.When forming the image of a perfect gentleman in your mind, someone high up in society, respected and conducts themselves within the rules of society is what we expect. It seems odd that the bird would be afraid of a man when he causes no disruption to it and isnt even close. Its as though the man is not part of their world so the bird is unfamiliar with his presence or has seen other men before hurting nature. Even though the man is the best in human society he still scares the bird like a predator would, Hardy has done this to show even the best of us are seen as evil by nature.Something else that adds to the shock of this is that the baby has been sat watching and the bird was not afraid. Hardy has done this to show the baby is innocent and na ive and has not yet turned into the greedy monster that is man. The baby causes no threat and because of its innocence is accepted by nature. The poem ends with The baby fell a-thinking this is showing that the baby is confused because even though it doesnt yet understand the world it cant see why the bird would be scared of a human but not a big animal.The baby has only known the man caring for it so has not seen the side of man that the wagtail has. Thomas Hardy uses poetic devices to convey his ideas within this poem. He uses irony to show how humans try to improve their lives with industry and in turn destroy the habitats of wildlife. Hardy uses detailed descriptions to create vivid imagery and contrast the difference between man and animal again showing irony as the one that made the least disruption frightened the bird away. He uses alliteration for emphasis and his structure to reflect the state of mind of the baby viewing the scene.

Kinetic sculptures; phenakistiscope

Artwork creations consisting of continuous moving parts or sounds argon examples of kinetic sculptures. Windmills, wheels, mobiles, lava lamps and water wholly may be considered kinetic sculptures. Paintings giving illusions of continuing into the unknown, such(prenominal) as towers leading and combining into an new(prenominal) item of the painting use kinetic elements. Sculptures containing motion are most commonly referred to as kinetic art. Artists use many scientific elements creating kinetic sculptures. Persistence of muckle is a common element used in kinetic sculpturing.Persistence of vision means the human wit fills the blanks between sequential images seen in rapid succession creating an illusion of continuous motion (Barsamian, July 3, 2006). Film, television and scour stage acting adopt persistence of vision techniques making their productions come alive. Often art museums guess on outside affects such as lighting, strobe lights, external lighting, wall coloring and even other artwork to accent the kinetic sculptures. Through the use or rotating mechanical armatures and synchronized strobe lights, ternary dimensional objects move horizontally and vertically and change their shapes in real time.The inspiration for this strange and fantastic world are animation techniques that predate the film such as the zoetrope, flip book and phenakistiscope, all of which are based on the persistence of vision, in other words, after image (Barsamian, 2006). Moving kinetic sculptures originate with very simple lines, shapes, rectangles, and circles everyone learned before pre-K. Phenakistiscope is a spinning disk reflecting images. The wheel perpetually spins as the viewer looks into slits of continuous moving reflections. The symbology of images is left up to what the viewer interprets, incorporating the persistence of vision concept.

Cracker Barrel Restaurants Case Study Essay

1. Discuss the factors that make it more difficult to confirm work place variation based on familiar predilection than discrimination based on race?Although federal laws protect people from workplace discrimination on the basis of race, national origin, religion, sex, age, and disability, on that point is no federal law that specifically outlaws workplace discrimination on the basis of sexual taste in the private sector. (Federal government workers are protected from such(prenominal) discrimination.). an employee can file a infirmity regarding discrimination based on race and be heard while an employee that files a complaint regarding discrimination based of sexual orientation will non be heard unless the company that they work for has an inner policy regarding sexual orientation.2. Do chain restaurant operations, which prize uniformity and thus reliability in store design, products, and run procedures, require uniformity of personnel policies? Were the regional variations that Dan Evins proposed on February 27, 1991, a viable collective strategy? Why or why not.The need of personnel policies arises basically from overall objectives of the organization a corporate thinking is required which will guide decision making at all operating level. The spontaneous cooperation of employees can be achieved with a just and fair treatment to all. Personnel policies nominate the basis for uniformity and consistency.I do not believe they were a viable corporate strategy, as it started a chain reaction to incriminatory fire LGBT employees for no valid reason then that they were not heterosexual. Protests erupted at restaurants in dozens of cities and towns boycotts were organized and shareholders complained. even though nothing was accomplished until 2002 when New York and its consort fought until 58 percent of the shareholders persuaded Cracker Barrels board to vote unanimously to explicitly proscribe anti-gay discrimination in its equal employment policy.3. H ow does the Cracker Barrel case support or contend the nation that federal legislation is warranted to stop employment discrimination based on sexual orientation?Although there are not federal laws to prevent discrimination based onsexual orientation, protections does equal for workers on the basis of religion, gender, national origin, age, disability, and race. Still, as the NAACP and other lawsuits against Cracker Barrel demonstrate, federal legislation does not ensure corporate compliance. Aggrieved parties and their supporters often must invest years of their lives in protest and litigation exclusively to achieve the equal treatment ostensibly guaranteed in the American marketplace. Even after the terns race and sexual orientation have been added to the policy statements, broader cultural transformations will be required before these added burdens are outback(a) from the shoulders of workers already greatly disadvantaged in our society.4. Why are particular retail products, for example, inanimate objects such as mammy dolls, perceived to be racist?To be honest I do not like the mammy dolls, I just found out that the mammie dolls are racial motivated toward African Americans of the past. The development of the dolls came from cartoons of black people in 1600, 1700, and 1800s. The cartoons made remarks about African American women that were slaves who in close instances were house slaves who took care of slave owners children. These cartoons developed more negative images during this time. The development of the cloth dolls and ceramic dolls became everyday due to these cartoons. The mammie dolls are resurfacing now by Caucasians and miss-educated African Americans as heritage dolls.They are apart of African American heritage however a negative image. They have increased sales after the resource of Barack Obama by Caucasians by right wing conservatives.5. Which areas of corporate activity should be open to broader scrutiny through shareholder resoluti ons? How much stake in the company should a shareholder have in magnitude to ease up a resolution?The desire to promote the core values of the shareholder, and or to address the bank line risks and opportunities of global climate change, $2,000 or 1% and must be on the inside, must own for at least 1 year.6. If a controversial corporate policy is reversed only after a decade of defiance, how should the companys worldly concern dealing officers present the change to the media?Public relations professionals present the face of an organization or several(prenominal), usually to articulate its objectives and official views on issues of relevance, primarily to the media. Public relations contributes to the way an organization is perceived by influencing the media and maintaining relationships with stakeholders. Specific public relations disciplines includeFinancial public relations talk financial results and business strategy Consumer/lifestyle public relations gaining publicit y for a particular product or service Crisis communication responding in a crisisInternal communications communicating within the company itself Government relations engaging government departments to influence public policy Food-centric relations communicating specific information centered on foods, beverages and wine.Building and managing relationships with those who influence an organization or individuals audiences has a central role in doing public relations. After a public relations practitioner has been working in the field, they accumulate a list of relationships that become an asset, especially for those in media relations. indoors each discipline, typical activities include publicity events, speaking opportunities, press releases, newsletters, blogs, social media, press kits and outbound communication to members of the press. Video and audio news releases are often produced and distributed to TV outlets in hopes they will be use as regular program content.

A Resource-Based View of International Human Resources: Toward a Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities

Center for Advanced gaye vision Studies (CAHRS) CAHRS bunking Paper Series Cornell University ILR School Year 2005 A Resource-Based View Of world-wide world Resources Toward A mannikin of Integrative and germinal Capabilities Shad S. Morris Cornell University Scott A. Snell Cornell University Patrick M. Wright Cornell University This paper is posted at emailprotected http//digital commons. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrswp/284 CAHRS at Cornell University 187 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853-3901 USA Tel. 607 255-9358 www. ilr. cornell. edu/CAHRS WORKING modernisticsprint SERIESA Resource-Based View of International gracious beingskind Resources Toward a simulationing of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Scott A. Snell Patrick M. Wright working(a) Paper 05 16 International kind Resources CAHRS WP05-16 A Resource-Based View Of International homosexual Resources Toward A Framework of Integrative and Creative Capabilities Shad S. Morris Cornell University School o f Industrial and outwear Relations 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-7622 emailprotected edu Scott A. Snell Cornell University Center for Advanced compassionate race Resource Studies (CAHRS) 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-4112 scott. emailprotected edu Patrick M. Wright Cornell University Center for Advanced forgiving Resource Studies (CAHRS) 393 Ives Hall Ithaca, NY 14853 (607) 255-3429 emailprotected edu http//www. ilr. cornell. edu/cahrs This paper has non underg ane buckram review or approval of the faculty of the ILR School. It is in hightail ited to make results of Center research available to differents interested in preliminary form to dress along discussion and suggestions. Most (if not all) of the CAHRS Working Papers atomic number 18 available for reading at the Catherwood Library.For information on whats available link to the Cornell Library compile http//catalog. library. cornell. edu if you wish. rogue 2 International Human Resources Abst ract CAHRS WP05-16 Drawing on organisational learning and MNC perspectives, we make up the imaging base view to address how multinationalistic human vision management leads sustainable hawkish advantage. We phrase a fashion model that emphasizes and extends traditional assumptions of the imaging-based view by identifying the learning capabilities necessary for a complex and changing orbiculate environs.These capabilities address how MNCs world power both grow new HR invests in response to local anesthetic environments and combine existing HR practices from other parts of the buckram ( agrees, regional headquarters, and spheric headquarters). In an effort to hear the nature of such(prenominal) capabilities, we discuss aspects of human upper-case letter, tender nifty, and organisational pileus that competency be conjugated to their break awayment. scallywag 3 International Human Resources Introduction CAHRS WP05-16 Few will press against the importanc e of supranational human resource management (IHRM) in todays multinational corporation (MNC).A replete(p) range of issuesthat varies from global sourcing and off-shoring to regional trade agreements and promote standards to strategic alliances and innovationall point to the vital nature of IHRM in todays global economy. In fact, some observers choose suggested that how steadfasts manage their work forces is among the pissedest predictors of successful versus unsuccessful MNCs (cf. , Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989 Doz & Prahalad, 1986 Hedlund, 1986). Researchers subscribe adopted a number of unalike theoretical approaches for perusing IHRM.Not surprisingly, the resource-based view (RBV) of the whole has emerged as perhaps the predominant perspective (Wright, Dunford, and Snell, 2002). RBV is particularly attractive to IHRM researchers in that it focuses directly on the potential apprize of a firms internal asset stocks for conceiving and executing non-homogeneous strategies . This perspective departs from traditional I/O economic models of competitive advantage that focus on the structure of commercializes as the primary determinant of firm mathematical process (Barney, 1991 Wernerfelt, 1984).Also in contrast with I/O economic models, the RBV is based on the assumption that resources be (1) distri anded heterogeneously crossways firms and (2) remain imperfectly alert over time. Because these asset stocks be unequal, there is the potential for comparative advantage. And when the resources are immobile, that advantage may be demanding to appropriate or imitate, thereby conferring a sustainable advantage In the mise en scene of MNCs, the set forth of resource heterogeneousness and quietness have particular relevance. man the RBV typically focuses on resource heterogeneousness crossways firms, MNCs are unique in that they possess heterogeneity inside their asset stocks as well. Because they wage in multiple environments, MNCs are likely to possess chromosomal mutations in both their people and practices that reflect local requirements, laws, and cultures. This variation is a potential source of advantage at a local level, and rump provide a global advantage to the MNC as a whole if the fellowship, skills, and capabilities can be leveraged appropriately. Page 4International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 However, date heterogeneous resources are potentially immobile crosswise firms, they may in like manner be immobile at bottom firms (MNCs). precondition that scholars have consistently noted the difficulties of integrating people and practices deep down MNCs (e. g. , Szulanski, 1996 McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001), the challenge of desegregation remains one of the to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal) perplexing organisational and strategic issues. It is thereof somewhat surprising that IHRM researchers have not addressed this issue more directly.The purpose of this chapter is to summarize th e books on RBV and IHRM by addressing the ways in which resource heterogeneity and indifference provide potential advantages to MNCs. However, we in addition hope to extend the RBV in this context by addressing some of the primary challenges ofand capabilities infallible to grow resources and mix them crossways business units within the MNC. In this sense, we draw upon the acquaintance-based view of the firm (KBV) and organizational learning perspectives to fashion at how practices are created and fluxd on a global scale (Grant, 1996 Teece, Pisano, & Shuen, 1997).To organize this discussion, we break the chapter dump into three parts First, we review how the RBV has been applied to IHRM issues to date and discuss the underlying assumptions of this research. Second, we extend the RBV logic to more appropriately deal with issues of practice integration and world within a globally dynamic environment by turning focus to aspects of learning capabilities. Finally, we discuss the significances for future research and where this extended view of RBV mogul purify research on a firms human resources.IHM, People, Practices, And Competitive Advantage Discussions of IHRM within the RBV framework focus on both the workforce (i. e. , the people) as well as the HR endure (i. e. , the structures, policies and practices) (e. g. , Evans, Pucik, & Basoux, 2002 touched(predicate) & Bjorkman, 2001 MacDuffie, 1995 Schuler, Dowling, & De Cieri, 1993). To have a sustainable competitive advantage a firm must jump possess people with different and unwrap skills and noesis than its competitors or it must possess HR practices that go away for differentiation from competitors.Second, these practices or skills and abilities should not be easy for competitors to duplicate or imitate (Wright, Dunford, & Snell, 2001). Page 5 International Human Resources Managing Global Workforces CAHRS WP05-16 edifice on the assumptions of heterogeneity and apathy, scholars systemat ically stress the strategic contributions of peoples intimacy and skills to the operation of firms and sustained competitive advantage (Boxall, 1996). In fact, Barney (1991) softened a model to show how specific assets can be strategically identified to lead to sustainable competitive advantage.Building on this model, McWilliams, Van Fleet, and Wright (2001) argue that human resources, defined as the entire pool of employees, present a unique source of advantage in comparison to domestic labor pools in damage of value, rarity, inimit faculty, and nonsubstitut cogency (VRIN). minded(p) the VRIN framework, McWilliams et al. (2001) argued that firms can benefit from a global workforce in two ways (1) slap-upizing on the global labor pools, and (2) exploiting the ethnical synergies of a diverse workforce. First, global (heterogeneous) labor pools potentially provide superior human capital.This is because firms can draw from different labor pools to match the different ineluctably of the firm (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989). For example, some labor pools may have workers who, on average, have higher cognitive ability or have had great access to education and training. An MNC could potentially draw from the highest woodland labor pools for those attend tos that require high cognitive ability and education and training (McWilliams et al. , 2001). Second, the use of heterogeneous labor pools potentially increases the quality of global business ratiocination making.When an MNC draws from its multiple labor pools it has the potential to a build diverse and flexible cadre of managers that are better able to bring different perspectives to a decision than a management convocation based totally from the reboot country (Ricks, 1993). That diversity also enables management to be flexible in applying their skills by means ofout the different parts of the firm. Wright and Snell (1998) discussed theses advantages in terms of resource flexibility and coordination flexib ility.While McWilliams et al. (2001) highlighted the benefits of human resource heterogeneity and immobility they also point out the difficulty in transferring and integrating these resources Page 6 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 within the MNC. Drawing on Szulanskis (1996) concept of stickiness, they note that the exchanges are make more difficult by the lack of receptive capacity of the receiver, causal ambiguity, and an sonorous relationship amid the source and the recipient (Szulanski, 1996 36).Yet, little research exists discussing how internal stickiness can be overcome in order to maximize the benefits of a global workforce while overcoming the challenges of integration and coordination. Managing Global HR Functions Placing people as the source of sustainable competitive advantage moves us to the dilemma of how best to manage their experience, skills, and abilities. Within the RBV literature, issues of resource heterogeneity and immobility underlie the inev itable tension between local responsiveness and global integration in MNCs (cf. Bae & Lawler, 2000 Brewster, 1999 Fey & Bjorkman, 2001 Sparrow, Schuler & Jackson, 1994). Local responsiveness and the value derived from customization implies variationi. e. , heterogeneitywithin the MNC. Global efficiency, on the other hand, requires integration crosswise business units. However, given the assumption of resource immobility, this integration is not always easy to achieve. Schuler et al. (1993) captured the substance of these tradeoffs by highlighting the relationships between internal operations and interunit linkages.From the standpoint of internal operations, each overseas affiliate must operate as efficaciously as possible congener to the competitive schema of the MNC. This manner that these affiliates can offer advantages to the MNC by recognizing and developing HR practices that are appropriate for their local markets, employment laws, cultural traditions, and the like. While internal operations at the local level are primary(prenominal), the MNC must also pass interunit linkages to gain efficiencies of scale and scope across several different countries.This suggests that while overseas affiliates can get advantages locally, there are also substantial advantages that can be gained globally through integrated HR practices. Each is important, but each carries with it a different set of organizational requirements. These requirements point directly to issues pertinent for HRM. Page 7 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Extending these ideas, Taylor, Beechler, and Napier (1996) describe how MNCs might develop a more collective approach to HRM. The objective of this strategy is to share best practices from all parts of the firm (not just corporate) to create a world undecomposable system.While there are allowances for local differentiation, the focus is on substantial global integration. Differentiation provides both the potential for local respo nse and customization, as well as the variety of ideas and practices needed for innovation at the global level. However, integration through coordination, communication, and learning is not always easily achieved in this context. Ironically, the genuinely characteristics that provide resource-based advantage at the local level actually complicate integration at the global level.The ability of firms to gain efficiencies of scope and scale at a global level is do more difficult by resource heterogeneity, and this challenge is exacerbated by resource immobility. The challenge then for the transnational firm is to identify how firms can hold back variety (and local customization) while simultaneously establishing a launching for integration and efficiency. As mentioned by McWilliams et al. (2001) very few scholars have addressed the stickiness issue involved in balancing the global and local tension. Taylor et al. 1996) allude to such integration difficulties when they note The reas on firms move toward an exportive alternatively than an endogenetic SIHRM orientationis that the mechanism to identify and transfer the best HRM practices in their overseas affiliates are not in place. Such mechanisms as having regional or global meetings of affiliate HR directors, transferring HRM materials (e. g. , performance judgment forms to affiliates) or posting of the HR director of the affiliates to the HQs of the firm were not developed (p. 972). These same competency issues are raised by McWilliams et al. 2001) when they discuss the major causes of internal stickiness being lack of absorptive capacity, causal ambiguity, and arduous relationships between the source and recipient. In both examples, barriers to global practice integration are raised and discussed, but not resolved. This issue is addressed more fully below. Page 8 International Human Resources IHM And Capabilities CAHRS WP05-16 Given the importanceand difficultyof integrating human resources at a global l evel, while preserving the uniqueness and heterogeneity at the local level, it seems reasonable to discuss these issues in the context of competitive capabilities.Based on the companionship based view (KBV) of firms, that emphasizes the need to acquire and integrate knowledge, we suggest two such capabilities (see mental image 1). First, knowledge integration capability refers to a firms ability to transfer and coordinate human resources across affiliates in a way that utilizes economies of scale and scope while allowing and promoting responsiveness to the local environment. Second, knowledge creation capability refers to a firms ability to create new and potentially innovative practices at the local level. figure of speech 1 IHRM People, Practices, and Capabilities Focus Theories RBV Focus on individual resources of knowledge, skills, and abilities RBV and Competencies Focus on combined resources of HR practices strategical Question Workforce What are the knowledge, skills, and abilities that are heterogeneous and immobile? HR Practices and Systems What are the HR practices and systems that are heterogeneous and immobile? Learning Capabilities How can HR practices and systems be created and integrated to preserve heterogeneity and immobility?Sources McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001 People Practices Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996 KBV and brassal Capabilities Capabilities Focus on learning processes and capabilities Chadwick & Cappelli, 1999 Knowledge Integration Capability Ironically, while learning capability is one of the key dimensions of the Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) framework of transnational organizations, most IHRM researchers have made only passing mention of how firms share and integrate best practice within the MNC.Snell, Youndt, and Wright (1996) argued that, particularly in dynamic environments, organizational learning may be the only way to insure that resources sustain their value and uniqueness over Page 9 International Human Resou rces CAHRS WP05-16 time. In essence, the capability to integrate HR practices better than competitors may be a key source of sustainable competitive advantage (cf. , Kogut & Zander, 1992). In the sections below, we frame the key factors underlying knowledge integration capability in terms of organizational capital, social capital, and human capital.Organizational Capital. Youndt, Subramaniam, and Snell (2004) define organizational capital as the institutionalized knowledge and codified brings residing within an organization. Artifacts of organizational capital include an organizations reliance on manuals and databases to preserve knowledge, along with the initiation of structures, processes, and routines that encourage repeated use of this knowledge (Hansen, Hohria, & Tierney, 1999). As an integration mechanism, organizational capital allows the firm to preserve knowledge as incoming employees replace those leaving.An example of such an artifact might be a lessons learned database to ensure that lessons learned by one group can be made genial for all groups. Based on MNC research, in order to improve the integration of knowledge within an MNC relative to the speed of its spreading or imitation by competitors, firms invest in ways to make knowledge explicit by encoding its use and replicating it in rules and documentation (Kogut & Zander, 1993). Other forms of organizational capital are likely to represent detailed, company-wide routines on how new HR practices should be integrated by all affiliates.These routines may detail how practices should be shared out to reduce the variance and time it takes to implement each new approach, and thereby, improve the overall efficiency of knowledge integration (March, 1991). Similarly, organizations typically implement information systems to provide affiliates with a common platform for HR processes and practices (Snell, Stueber & Lepak, 2002). These systems, processes, and routines ensure that (1) practices are imple mented routinely through established data charm procedures and (2) practices are rapidly disseminated throughout the entire MNC with minimal costs (Daft & Weick, 1984).In terms of integration capability, then, organizational capital provides a basis for sharing and Page 10 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 institutionalizing knowledge across affiliates. However, it may work against efforts to preserve heterogeneity at the sub-unit level. social Capital. hearty capitaldefined as the knowledge embedded within social lucresalso plays a potentially valuable role in the integration capability of MNCs (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). For example, Szulanski (1995) found that one of the biggest obstacles to transfer knowledge in MNCs is the poor relationship between sources and recipients of information.Along this line, Ghoshal and Bartlett (1989) empirically showed that knowledge sharing and integration could not occur without the existence of strong social connections. The import ance of social capital for integration capability is found in research by Kostova and Roth (2002), who concluded that successful practice adoption is largely dependent upon relationships based on trust and shared identity. Trust provides the motive to interact with others, while shared identity provides an overlapping understanding of what is important to share. some(prenominal) of these elements of social capital would seem vital for integration capability.And importantly, neither of them would de facto require the loss of local autonomy. Human Capital. While organizational and social capital are both potentially important resources underlying a firms integration capability, Teece (1977) argued that one of the principle obstacles to transfer and integration is lack of prior lie with and knowledge (i. e. , human capital). Research by Szulanski (1996) and Tsai (2002), for example, has shown that knowledge sharing and integration is facilitated when respective parties have the absor ptive capacity or prior experience to understand related ideas (Szulansk, 1996 Tsai, 2002).In the context of MNCs, Haas (2004) showed that groups with large amounts of supranational experience are more likely to integrate knowledge from other parts of the organization than those that do not. Similarly, Gregersen and Black (1992) found that not only is multinational experience important for integration, but when it is coupled with experience in corporate headquarters affiliates are more likely to maintain allegiance to the overall goals of the firm. These world-wide and corporate skills and knowledge are often gained through transfers and rotational assignments that enable the HR function to develop a more complex Page 11International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 and global orientation. This provides them with the ability to more systematically manage the integration process (Kedia & Bhagat, 1988). Such forms of human capital can also coiffe any tendency of HR subunits to assume that the situation in the host country is unique thus avoiding the not-invented-here syndrome. The upshot of this discussion s is that a firms integration capability likely depends on a combination of human, social, and organizational capital.Social and organizational capital are alternativeand potentially complementaryresources for knowledge and practice sharing. Human capital, in turn, is important for absorbing or acquiring that knowledge. As firms develop the capability to integrate existing practices they potentially can achieve economies of scale and scope through HRM. And when these compositional mechanisms preserve resource heterogeneity at a local level, it may lead to a more rapid response to a global environment and greater potential for competitive advantage.Figure 2 Capabilities Creative and Integrative Focus mart Assumption Value Proposition Sources Integrative Capabilities Stable Market Resources must be combined and integrated to maintain an advantage Combining re sources in ways that others cannot duplicate creates benefits arising from scarcity Taylor, Beechler, & Napier, 1996 McWilliams, Van Fleet, & Wright, 2001 Creative Capabilities propulsive Market Resources must be reconfigured and created to maintain an advantage growing new resources that competitors dont yet have creates benefits arising from innovationChadwick & Cappelli, 1999 Snell, Youndt, and Wright 1996 Page 12 International Human Resources Knowledge Creation Capability CAHRS WP05-16 In the context of organizational learning and the KBV, it is important to distinguish knowledge integration capability from knowledge creation capability. Just because a firm is able to integrate practices across affiliates does not mean that it will be able to create new practices as well (See Figure 2). Creation capabilities allow the MNC to develop new practices that lead to resource heterogeneity in the first place.While few HRM researchers have mentioned the importance of integration mecha nisms, fewer still have discussed the importance of creation mechanisms that revitalize a firms stock of HR practices. This is despite the fact that as firms continually integrate practices, it is imperative that new practices are created and developed that allows for innovation and continuous improvement in a changing environment. Therefore, in global environments characterized by rapid change and increasing competition, static concepts of heterogeneity may no longer be sufficient to explain (and sustain) a competitive advantage.An ongoing debate in strategy is whether any static view of resources can really explain a competitive advantage that is sustainable over time (Lippman & Rumelt, 1982). For example, Grant (1996) argues that idiosyncratic advantages naturally erode over time. This debate is especially applicable in the global environment where what might create a competitive advantage at one point in time or in one location, may not at some other point in time or location . Hence, it is vital that MNCs develop the capability to create and renew HR practices in order to maintain a competitive advantage.Ghoshal & Bartlett (1988) stated that MNCs create new products, practices, or systems locally, using specific mechanisms to respond to local circumstances. Creating local HR practices lies at the heart of an MNCs capability to be responsive to the unique and changing opportunities of different environments. Below, we discuss how human capital, social capital, and organizational capital might shape the knowledge creation capability of new HR practices. (See Figure 3 for an overview of mechanisms that decide knowledge integration and creation capabilities).Page 13 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 Figure 3 Capabilities Human Capital, Social Capital, Organizational Capital Human Capital Social Capital Organizational Capital Creative Capability In-depth local experience International experience outside of corporate Broad internal network range B road external network range Local Market Relationships Localized routines Creative processes and systems Norms of repose Overarching principles or guidelines Increasing regularize on Creative Capability Integrative CapabilityIncreasing Influence on Integrative Capability Absorptive capacity International and corporate experience Internal Social connections Shared perceptions and identity Internal Trust Company-wide rules and routines Corporate culture of sharing Interactive technologies Data show system Human Capital. The knowledge and experiencei. e. , human capitalof the people within the HR function is a key factor in new HR practice creationwhether of new practice ideas, or of improvements in the practices (Lepak & Snell, 1999).For example, HR functions possessing large amounts of local knowledge and experience should be able to effectively create practices on their own in response to the various, changing environments. This localized experience helps them to understand the n eeds of local clients and suppliers, which allows them to develop practices that are unique to each region or country, and hence, heterogeneous across the firm. Page 14 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 International experiences are also important for creating new HR practices.For example, because international experience is often highly valued in MNCs (e. g. , Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000), people with international skills and knowledge are more likely to be seen by others as being confident and willing to share divergent opinions and commend for their own position (Stasser, Stewart, & Wittenbaum, 1995). Moreover, Gregersen & Black (1992) showed that people with strong experience in many international settings and express mail experience in corporate are more likely to make changes based on local demands rather than pressures from central parts of the firm.This is most likely due to the peoples array of international experiences that have detached them from an allegiance wi th the company as a whole. Social Capital. Specific aspects of social capital have been argued to play a role in knowledge creation. For example, while Hansen (2002) argued that social networks provide an important conduit for the sharing of knowledge, he also argued that such networks play a role in knowledge creation because they inform network members about the existence, location, and significance of new knowledge.Burt (1982) found that networks comprising a broader range of contacts will have a more heterogeneous base of information and knowledge to draw from. While such wide networks may not always facilitate a deep flow of knowledge, they offer different fibre points for HR members to make comparisons and explore new ideas. A firms ability to find new opportunities is likely to be a function of multiple local contacts. HR affiliates often have vituperative links with local vendors and, perhaps, competing HR groups that allow them to pursue local opportunities (Bartlett & Gh oshal, 1989 Hedlund, 1986).Birkinshaw (1997) refers to these as relationships within the local market. Within the local market an affiliate is likely to be embedded in different types of relationships (Ghoshal & Bartlett, 1990 Ghoshal & Nohria, 1989). McEvily and Zaheer (1999) argue that because each part of the MNC maintains different local patterns of network linkages, they are exposed to new knowledge, ideas, and opportunities. Organizational Capital. In many cases, organizational capital may actually hinder knowledge creation capability. The formalized processes, systems, structures, and so forth ave a Page 15 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 tendency to reinforce existing routines and obviate against variation and change that engender creativity. However, in some instances, organizational capital may facilitate flexibility in the course of actions that allow a firm to attend to environmental cues. This is especially true when employees are further to take action tha t supersede company-wide, regularized routines in favor of localized response that allows knowledge soaking up from the local environment (Daft & Weick, 1984).For example, parts of the firm may develop seminal processes and systems to identify enigmas, develop hypotheses, pass around ideas to others, and contradict what would normally be expected (Torrence, 1988). Grant (1996) argued that such creative routines and processes offer an efficient framework for people to create new, situation-specific practices by utilizing local perspectives in developing practices for the firm.Though potentially problematic for the integrative capability, localized routines and creative processes help affiliates relate better with local vendors, clients, and competitors by providing a set of expectations and processes that encourage HR groups to turn to the surrounding environment. For example, an HR affiliate may have developed a simple manual or informal norm of what to do when developing a new practice. Such a routine is likely to leave many gaps in exact steps to follow, but provide an overview or value to help the HR group be innovative.This simple routine allows the local HR group to assimilate knowledge more quickly from its employees and develop practices to meet their needs. In summary, these aspects of human capital, social capital, and organizational capital help us identify how the knowledge integration and creation capabilities might occur within an MNC. Some of these forms of capital are more useful depending upon the capability it is supporting, and ironically, some of these mechanisms that influence integration might actually hinder knowledge creation and vice versa.For example, firms heavy in local knowledge and experiences and faint in international experiences might have a negative affect on a firms ability to integrate practices across the various parts of the firm. Such strong human capital is likely to promote the not-invented-here syndrome through the affiliates strong belief and experience base traffic exclusively with the local environment. Similarly, rigid forms of Page 16 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 organizational capital, in terms of standardized routines and shared electronic databases, might deter the various parts of HR to develop and create practices on their own.This could largely stem from the fact that so much structure and support for integration is in place that HR groups fail to find time to bring about new practices or hold existing practices to the local environment. Implications For Research And Theory The unique complexities and challenges faced by todays global firms present different implications for the RBV and its application to strategic IHRM. For example, because a large amount of the international management literature focuses on variances in cultural, geographical, and institutional pressures the implications for applying the RBV become more complex.As MNCs struggle to create and inte grate their practices across borders, they are faced with unique challenges that either push for global efficiency or local responsiveness. These challenges brusk the discussion for ways to actually manage both the creation and integration of knowledge on a global scale. This means that the questions typically asked by strategic IHRM scholars (e. g. , HR practices and performance) should be augmented with questions of how HR practices are created and integrated in ways that lead toward resource heterogeneity and immobility.To create a sustainable competitive advantage firms must not only be able to respond to their local environments or standardize their practices across the firm. They must be able to balance a tension of practice heterogeneity through local practice creation and immobility of those practices through their integration across the firm. One theoretical implication of this discussion calls for a greater understanding of the rents found through the creation and integra tion of HR practices. As Chadwick and Dabu (2004) explain, a marriage of rent concepts with theories of the firm (i. e. RBV) is essential to describing firms competitive advantages and particularly in understanding how actors within firms can take conscious steps to toward a sustainable competitive advantage. The latest strategic IHRM literature strongly alludes to the importance of integration and being able to Page 17 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 organize heterogeneous resources in a way that is difficult for competitors to imitate. The assumption here is that heterogeneity and immobility of resources creates greater performance or rents arising from scarcityRicardian rents (cf. , Carpenter, Sanders, Gregersen, 2001).In essence, Ricardian rents can be rooted in the cross-border integration of various HR practices. The integration of such practices not only assures that some of them will be unique to the firm, but that they will be difficult for others to imitatemak ing them scarce in the market. The advantages that come from constant creation of HR practices operates under a different principle than traditional resources leading to Ricardian rents. quite than rents arising from scarcity, the creation capability perspective emphasizes rents arising from market discontinuitiesSchumpeterian rents (cf. Carpenter et al. , 2001). Schumpeterian rents derive from a firms ability to exploit or leverage resources to address changing environments (Teece et al. , 1997 Amit & Schoemaker, 1993). Based on Schumpeterian rents, a focus on the continuous creation of resources can enable a firm to achieve competitive advantage on a sustainable basis by developing new practices that lead to practice heterogeneity across a complex and ambiguous global network. Hence, as mentioned by Lado and Wilson (1994) and Teece et al. 1997), turning to these dynamic capabilities as an extended approach to the RBV offers a closer understanding of the actual sources of competit ive advantage in a changing global environment. While we discuss the main mechanisms driving knowledge creation and integration (Grant, 1996), aspects of integration tend to focus on a broad array of learning processes, including knowledge sharing, transfer, codification, adoption, and/or institutionalization. Further research should look at how different aspects of the integration process might be influenced by specific human, social, and organizational capital mechanisms.For example, Hansen and Haas (2001) showed that many firms have little difficulty in sharing knowledge across various units of the firm, but that the actual application or institutionalization of this knowledge is a completely different matter. While other scholars such as Kogut and Zander (1992) and Schulz (2001) have theoretically separated integration to include transfer and integration (or combination), very Page 18 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 little practical research has been done on what fac tors might influence the transfer and what factors might influence the integration of knowledge.Clearly, there must be differences since research such as Hansen and Haas (2001) notice the disparity in knowledge that is shared and knowledge that is actually applied. Also, while the ideas presented in this chapter are rooted in theory, empirical research is needed to determine the impact of human, social,, and organizational capital on knowledge creation and integration capabilities. While theory suggests that aspects of all three of these factors will influence both capabilities, it is most probable that aspects of human capital will more strongly influence the creative capability.This is largely due to the fact that people and their knowledge and skills are what allows the different HR affiliates the ability to develop local practices on their own, without interference or supervision from regional or corporate headquarters. Similarly, social and organizational capital should have th eir strongest influences on the integrative capability. This is due, in part, to the conduits and repositories created from aspects of social capital and organizational capital, respectively.In fact, as we mentioned earlier, some aspects of organizational capital might have a negative effect on the firms ability to create new practices (knowledge), while some aspects of human capital may have a negative effect on the firms ability to integrate those practices across affiliates. end The purpose of this chapter has been to summarize the literature on RBV and IHRM in multinational firms by addressing the ways in which resource heterogeneity and immobility provide potential advantages to MNCs.However, we have also attempted to extend the RBV in this context by addressing some of the primary challenges ofand capabilities needed to integrate resources across business units within the MNC. The solution ofttimes used by firms has been to standardize HR practices and policies at a global le vel, but this solves the integration problem while destroying the advantages of local Page 19 International Human Resources CAHRS WP05-16 variety. The challenge as we see it is identifying how firms can preserve variety (and local customization) while simultaneously establishing a foundation for integration and efficiency.The ability for HR managers to balance this tension lies in the development of capabilities to create and integrate practices across the global HR function. We extended traditional views of RBV to include aspects of practice integration and creation. Such capabilities allow firms to constantly renew their HR practices in a way that allows them to respond to multiple external pressures while being coordinated and integrated to ensure that these practices drive the firms sustainable competitive advantage. 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